Writing SQL Queries

Overview

This document introduces the reader to the basics of Clickhouse SQL and Santiment's datasets.

The available datasets contain two types of data:

Precomputed metrics - Using the raw data and preprocessing, pre-computed metrics like mvrv_usd or daily_active_addresses are computed and stored.
Raw data - Transfers, balances, labels, events, etc.

Clickhouse Overview

Clickhouse is a true Column-Oriented Database Management System that, among other things, makes it extremely fast and suitable for storing and working with metrics and crypto-related data.

Clickhouse SQL is identical to ANSI SQL in many ways with some distinctive features. It supports SELECT, GROUP BY, JOIN, ORDER BY, subqueries in FROM, IN operator and subqueries in IN operator, window functions, many aggregate functions (avg, max, min, last, first, etc.), scalar subqueries, and so on.

To provide the highest possible performance, some features are not present:

No support for foreign keys, but they are simulated in some of the existing tables (holding pre-computed metrics mostly). For example, there is asset_id column in the intraday_metrics table, and asset_metadata table to which the asset_id refers. The lack of foreign key support means that the database cannot guarantee referential integrity, so it is enforced by application-level code.
No full-fledged transactions. The SQL Editor has read-only access, and Clickhouse is used mainly as append-only storage, so the lack of transactions does not cause any issues for this use case.

Official Clickhouse SQL Reference

Some of the important pages that contain useful information:

The FINAL keyword

Note: This part is more technical

There are some keywords that can often be seen in Clickhouse SQL but are not seen in other known SQL variants. These keywords are explained here.

Values in Clickhouse tables are not updated directly. Instead, in case there is a need to modify an existing row, the MergeTree Table Engine is used. In order to update an existing row, a new row with the same primary key is inserted. At some unspecified point in time, Clickhouse will merge all rows with the same primary key into one. Until that merge happens, all rows will exist and will appear in selects.

Example: There is one value per day for an asset-metric pair in the daily_metrics_v2 table. The value is recomputed every hour and a new row with the same primary key but different value and computed_at is inserted.

In order to read the data as if it is already merged, you need to add the FINAL keyword after the table name:

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SELECT dt, value
FROM daily_metrics_v2 FINAL
WHERE asset_id = get_asset_id('bitcoin') AND  metric_id = get_metric_id('daily_active_addresses')
ORDER BY dt DESC
LIMIT 2

Test in Queries

This FINAL keyword is not free - it slightly reduces the performance. In case performance is seeked, the same goal can be achieved with standard SQL by using GROUP BY the primary key and aggregate functions. This approach has smaller performance penalty at the cost of code readability and maintainability.

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SELECT dt, argMax(value, computed_at)
FROM daily_metrics_v2
WHERE asset_id = get_asset_id('bitcoin') AND  metric_id = get_metric_id('daily_active_addresses')
GROUP BY dt, asset_id, metric_id
ORDER BY dt DESC
LIMIT 2

Test in Queries

The PREWHERE clause

In addition to the standard WHERE clause, Clickhouse also supports PREWHERE. This is an optimization to apply filtering more efficiently. The effect is that, at first only the columns necessary for executing the filtering expression are read.

In case FINAL keyword is not used, WHERE is automatically transformed into PREWHERE. In case FINAL keyword is used, WHERE is not automatically transformed into PREWHERE. Such transformation in the latter case can lead to different results in case columns that are not part of the primary key are used in the filtering.

Do not use PREWHERE unless you are sure what you are doing.

Using pre-computed metrics

The pre-computed metrics are located in the following tables:

intraday_metrics - metrics with more than one value per day. In most cases, these metrics have a new value every 5 minutes. Example: active_addresses_24h
daily_metrics_v2 - metrics that have exactly 1 value per day. Example: daily_active_addresses

All tables storing pre-computed data have a common set of columns.

dt - A DateTime field storing the corresponding date and time.
asset_id - An UInt64 unique identifier for an asset. The data for that id is stored in the asset_metadata table.
metric_id - An UInt64 unique identifier for metric. The data for that id is stored in the metric_metadata table.
value - A Float column holding the metric's value for the given asset/metric pair.
computed_at - A DateTime column storing the date and time when the given row was computed.

Fetch data for asset bitcoin and metric daily_active_addresses

The following example shows how to fetch rows for Bitcoin's daily_active_addresses metric:

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SELECT asset_id, metric_id, dt, value
FROM daily_metrics_v2 FINAL
WHERE
    asset_id = (SELECT asset_id FROM asset_metadata FINAL WHERE name = 'bitcoin' LIMIT 1) AND
    metric_id = (SELECT metric_id FROM metric_metadata FINAL WHERE name = 'daily_active_addresses' LIMIT 1) AND
    dt >= toDateTime('2020-01-01 00:00:00')
LIMIT 2

Test in Queries

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┌─asset_id─┬─metric_id─┬─────────dt─┬──value─┐
│     1452 │        74 │ 2020-01-01 │ 522172 │
│     1452 │        74 │ 2020-01-02 │ 678391 │
└──────────┴───────────┴────────────┴────────┘

The query is lengthy and contains parts that will be often used in queries - the asset_id and metric_id filtering. For this reason, predefined functions can be used to simplify fetching those ids.

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SELECT asset_id, metric_id, dt, value
FROM daily_metrics_v2 FINAL
WHERE
  asset_id = get_asset_id('bitcoin') AND
  metric_id = get_metric_id('daily_active_addresses') AND
  dt >= toDateTime('2020-01-01 00:00:00')
LIMIT 2

Test in Queries

The result still contains the integer representation of the asset and metric. To convert the asset_id to the asset name and the metric_id to the metric name there are a few options:

Join the result with the asset_metadata and metric_metadata tables. This works, but is highly verbose.
Use dictionaries that store these mappings and can be used without JOIN.

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SELECT
    dt,
    dictGetString('asset_metadata_dict', 'name', asset_id) AS asset,
    dictGetString('metric_metadata_dict', 'name', metric_id) AS metric,
    value
FROM daily_metrics_v2 FINAL
WHERE
    asset_id = get_asset_id('bitcoin') AND
    metric_id = get_metric_id('daily_active_addresses') AND
    dt >= toDateTime('2020-01-01 00:00:00')
LIMIT 2

Test in Queries

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┌─────────dt─┬─asset───┬─metric─────────────────┬─value─┐
│ 2022-06-30 │ bitcoin │ daily_active_addresses │     0 │
│ 2022-07-01 │ bitcoin │ daily_active_addresses │     0 │
└────────────┴─────────┴────────────────────────┴───────┘

As with the asset_id and metric_id filtering, there are functions that simplify the dictionary access as well.

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SELECT
    dt,
    get_asset_name(asset_id) AS asset,
    get_metric_name(metric_id) AS metric,
    value
FROM daily_metrics_v2 FINAL
WHERE
    asset_id = get_asset_id('bitcoin') AND
    metric_id = get_metric_id('daily_active_addresses') AND
    dt >= toDateTime('2020-01-01 00:00:00')
LIMIT 2

Test in Queries

To obtain the average value per month, aggregation and grouping must be used. When grouping, all columns not part of the GROUP BY must have an aggregation applied. In this case, as there is data for a single asset and a single metric, their corresponding id columns can be aggregated with any as all these values are the same.

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SELECT
    toStartOfMonth(dt) AS month,
    get_asset_name(any(asset_id)) AS asset,
    get_metric_name(any(metric_id)) AS metric,
    floor(avg(value)) AS monthly_avg_value
FROM daily_metrics_v2 FINAL
WHERE
    asset_id = get_asset_id('bitcoin') AND
    metric_id = get_metric_id('daily_active_addresses') AND
    dt >= toDateTime('2020-01-01 00:00:00')
GROUP BY month
LIMIT 12

Test in Queries

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┌──────month─┬─asset───┬─metric─────────────────┬─monthly_avg_value─┐
│ 2020-01-01 │ bitcoin │ daily_active_addresses │            712767 │
│ 2020-02-01 │ bitcoin │ daily_active_addresses │            758896 │
│ 2020-03-01 │ bitcoin │ daily_active_addresses │            738555 │
│ 2020-04-01 │ bitcoin │ daily_active_addresses │            803423 │
│ 2020-05-01 │ bitcoin │ daily_active_addresses │            896321 │
│ 2020-06-01 │ bitcoin │ daily_active_addresses │            876348 │
│ 2020-07-01 │ bitcoin │ daily_active_addresses │            958904 │
│ 2020-08-01 │ bitcoin │ daily_active_addresses │            984239 │
│ 2020-09-01 │ bitcoin │ daily_active_addresses │            982237 │
│ 2020-10-01 │ bitcoin │ daily_active_addresses │            942581 │
│ 2020-11-01 │ bitcoin │ daily_active_addresses │           1026279 │
│ 2020-12-01 │ bitcoin │ daily_active_addresses │           1072016 │
└────────────┴─────────┴────────────────────────┴───────────────────┘

Using precomputed metrics to build new metrics

Not all metrics are build from the raw data only. Some of the metrics are computed by combining a set of pre-computed metrics.

The MVRV is defined as the ratio between the Market Value and Realized Value. The total supply is part of the numerator and the denominator, so it can be eliminated. The result is that the numerator is just price_usd and the denominator is realized_price_usd. There are precomputed metrics for both, so we can use them to compute the MVRV (and that's how we do it for the official MVRV metric!). Depending on the load on the database, the query duration can vary. At the moment of writing this, running the query takes 0.13 seconds.

In the query anyIf is used as there is filtering by asset_id and metric_id, so there is only one value per metric for each dt. The example after that discusses how to handle more complex GROUP BY clauses.

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SELECT
  dt,
  get_asset_name(any(asset_id)) AS asset,
  anyIf(value, metric_id=get_metric_id('price_usd')) AS numerator,
  anyIf(value, metric_id=get_metric_id('mean_realized_price_usd_intraday_20y')) AS denominator,
  numerator / denominator AS mvrv_usd_ratio,
  floor((mvrv_usd_ratio - 1) * 100, 2) AS mvrv_usd_percent
FROM intraday_metrics FINAL
WHERE
  asset_id = get_asset_id('bitcoin') AND
  metric_id IN (get_metric_id('price_usd'), get_metric_id('mean_realized_price_usd_intraday_20y')) AND
  dt >= toDateTime('2022-01-01 00:00:00')
GROUP BY dt
ORDER BY dt ASC
LIMIT 10

Test in Queries

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┌──────────────────dt─┬─asset───┬──────────numerator─┬────────denominator─┬─────mvrv_usd_ratio─┬─mvrv_usd_percent─┐
│ 2022-01-01 00:00:00 │ bitcoin │  46378.15778582922 │ 23002.992048445383 │ 2.0161793599786777 │           101.61 │
│ 2022-01-01 00:05:00 │ bitcoin │  46394.94838737312 │ 23002.992048445383 │  2.016909291176695 │           101.69 │
│ 2022-01-01 00:10:00 │ bitcoin │  46376.92099283003 │ 23002.997373190537 │ 2.0161251266707207 │           101.61 │
│ 2022-01-01 00:15:00 │ bitcoin │ 46342.625905845896 │ 23002.997373190537 │   2.01463423022676 │           101.46 │
│ 2022-01-01 00:20:00 │ bitcoin │ 46349.908441099375 │  23002.95114246238 │  2.014954870531355 │           101.49 │
│ 2022-01-01 00:25:00 │ bitcoin │ 46419.391208461006 │ 23002.920905515144 │ 2.0179781254358686 │           101.79 │
│ 2022-01-01 00:30:00 │ bitcoin │ 46423.024145185496 │  23002.93075048584 │ 2.0181351954122198 │           101.81 │
│ 2022-01-01 00:35:00 │ bitcoin │ 46499.005410722944 │ 23002.948585722002 │  2.021436740487479 │           102.14 │
│ 2022-01-01 00:40:00 │ bitcoin │ 46573.474600493675 │  23002.95629498449 │  2.024673437763669 │           102.46 │
│ 2022-01-01 00:45:00 │ bitcoin │  46647.52193392966 │ 23003.039167275976 │ 2.0278851674647504 │           102.78 │
└─────────────────────┴─────────┴────────────────────┴────────────────────┴────────────────────┴──────────────────┘

To return only some of the columns, the query can be provided as a FROM subquery. This does not induce any performence degradation. This example also shows how the WITH Clause can be used to avoid string literals repetition.

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WITH
    get_metric_id('price_usd') AS price_usd_metric_id,
    get_metric_id('mean_realized_price_usd_intraday_20y') AS realized_price_usd_metric_id
SELECT
    dt, 
    price_usd / realized_price_usd AS mvrv_usd_ratio,
    floor((mvrv_usd_ratio - 1) * 100, 2) AS mvrv_usd_percent
FROM (
  SELECT
    dt,
    get_asset_name(any(asset_id)) AS asset,
    anyIf(value, metric_id=price_usd_metric_id) AS price_usd,
    anyIf(value, metric_id=realized_price_usd_metric_id) AS realized_price_usd
  FROM intraday_metrics FINAL
  WHERE
    asset_id = get_asset_id('bitcoin') AND
    metric_id IN (price_usd_metric_id, realized_price_usd_metric_id) AND
    dt >= toDateTime('2022-01-01 00:00:00')
  GROUP BY dt
)
ORDER BY dt ASC
LIMIT 10

Test in Queries

The next query demonstrates what needs to be done if there is a need to aggregate the datetime instead of getting a value for each dt:

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WITH
    get_metric_id('price_usd') AS price_usd_metric_id,
    get_metric_id('mean_realized_price_usd_intraday_20y') AS realized_price_usd_metric_id
SELECT
    month, 
    price_usd / realized_price_usd AS mvrv_usd_ratio,
    floor((mvrv_usd_ratio - 1) * 100, 2) AS mvrv_usd_percent
FROM (
  SELECT
    toStartOfMonth(dt) AS month,
    get_asset_name(any(asset_id)) AS asset,
    argMaxIf(value, dt, metric_id=price_usd_metric_id) AS price_usd,
    argMaxIf(value, dt, metric_id=realized_price_usd_metric_id) AS realized_price_usd
  FROM intraday_metrics FINAL
  WHERE
    asset_id = get_asset_id('bitcoin') AND
    metric_id IN (price_usd_metric_id, realized_price_usd_metric_id) AND
    dt >= toDateTime('2022-01-01 00:00:00')
  GROUP BY month
)
ORDER BY month ASC
LIMIT 10

Test in Queries

The following row needs some explanation:

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argMaxIf(value, dt, metric_id=get_metric_id('price_usd')) AS price_usd,

This function call has three parameters:

value - This is the column that is returned
dt - This is the column that max is performed upon. Of all columns matching the filter, the one with the max dt is returned.
metric_id=get_metric_id('price_usd') - This a boolean expression. Look only at the rows for which the expression evaluates to true.

If the FINAL keyword is not used, taking the row with biggest computed_at among those with the same dt can be achieved by using a tuple as a second argument:

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argMaxIf(value, (dt, computed_at), metric_id=get_metric_id('price_usd')) AS price_usd,

Using raw data

Example for top transfers

Find the 5 biggest ETH transactions to the graveyard address 0x0000000000000000000000000000000000000000

There are some duplicated tables with different ORDER BY. In the case of transfer tables there are tables with the _to suffix. This indicates that the to address is to the front of the ORDER BY key. This table has bigger performance when only filtering of to address is applied.

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SELECT
    dt,
    from,
    transactionHash,
    value / pow(10, 18) -- transform from gwei to ETH
FROM eth_transfers_to FINAL
WHERE to = '0x0000000000000000000000000000000000000000'
ORDER BY value DESC
LIMIT 5

Test in Queries

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┌──────────────────dt─┬─from───────────────────────────────────────┬─transactionHash────────────────────────────────────────────────────┬─divide(value, pow(10, 18))─┐
│ 2015-08-08 11:01:14 │ 0x3f98e477a361f777da14611a7e419a75fd238b6b │ 0x242a15349ad0a7070afb73df92e8e569fd196c88c7f589a467f24e6028a07c69 │                       2000 │
│ 2016-07-28 19:39:05 │ 0xaa1a6e3e6ef20068f7f8d8c835d2d22fd5116444 │ 0x1c96608bda6ce4be0d0f30b3a5b3a9d9c94930291a168a0dbddfe9be24ac70d1 │                       1493 │
│ 2015-08-13 17:50:09 │ 0xf5437e158090b2a2d68f82b54a5864b95dd6dbea │ 0x88db76f50553d3d9d61eaf7480a92b1d68db08d69e688fd9b457571cc22ab2b0 │                       1000 │
│ 2021-09-08 03:30:47 │ 0x517bb391cb3a6d879762eb655e48a478498c3698 │ 0x429bfa5fdd1bf8117d6707914b6300ccf08ec3383d38a10ddf37247e18d90557 │              515.001801432 │
│ 2015-08-15 06:52:11 │ 0x20134cbff88bfadc466b52eceaa79857891d831e │ 0xe218f7abd6b557e01376c57bcdf7f5d8e94e0760306b1d9eb37e1a8ddc51e6ab │                        400 │
└─────────────────────┴────────────────────────────────────────────┴────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┴────────────────────────────┘

Example for address balance

Select the UNI balance of address at the beginning of each month.

For performance reasons the table has a non-intuitive design. The balances of an address are stored in a single field of type AggregateFunction(groupArray, Tuple(DateTime, Float64)). When the groupArrayMerge function is called on that field, it essentially turns into Array<Tuple(DateTime, Float64)>

The arrayJoin is a Clickhouse-specific function that is useful in many scenarios. Normal functions do not change a set of rows, but just change the values in each row (map). Aggregate functions compress a set of rows (fold or reduce). The arrayJoin function takes each row and generates a set of rows (unfold).

In this scenario arrayJoin is used to unfold the array of tuples into rows where each row has a datetime and value.

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SELECT
  toStartOfMonth(dt) AS datetime,
  toFloat64(argMax(value, dt)) / pow(10, 18) AS value
FROM (
  SELECT
    arrayJoin(groupArrayMerge(values)) AS values_merged,
    values_merged.1 AS dt,
    values_merged.2 AS value
  FROM balances_aggregated
  WHERE
    address = '0x1a9c8182c09f50c8318d769245bea52c32be35bc' AND
    blockchain = 'ethereum' AND
    asset_ref_id = get_asset_ref_id('uniswap')
  GROUP BY address, blockchain, asset_ref_id
  HAVING dt >= toDateTime('2021-01-01 00:00:00') AND dt < toDateTime('2022-08-01 00:00:00')
)
GROUP BY datetime

Test in Queries

Note that not every month has a balance. This is because during these months no transfers happened and balance records are produced only when the balance changes.

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┌───datetime─┬──────────────value─┐
│ 2021-01-01 │   54854034.6123795 │
│ 2021-02-01 │   75792689.3561644 │
│ 2021-04-01 │ 105258204.83054289 │
│ 2021-05-01 │ 113312234.63774733 │
│ 2021-06-01 │ 123442268.88432267 │
│ 2021-07-01 │ 134441434.15575847 │
│ 2021-08-01 │  158560087.2506342 │
│ 2021-09-01 │ 173403155.20471838 │
│ 2021-11-01 │ 173403155.20471838 │
│ 2021-12-01 │ 173403155.20471838 │
│ 2022-02-01 │  227551085.1894977 │
│ 2022-04-01 │  227040881.1894977 │
│ 2022-05-01 │ 254925338.09589037 │
│ 2022-06-01 │  268638940.6453577 │
│ 2022-07-01 │  280393165.7214612 │
└────────────┴────────────────────┘

Example for Development Activity

The github_v2 table contains Github Events data. Using these events one can compute better development activity metrics compared to using just commits counts, as described in this article

To compute the development activity of an organization:

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WITH ('IssueCommentEvent',
      'IssuesEvent',
      'ForkEvent',
      'CommitCommentEvent',
      'FollowEvent',
      'ForkEvent',
      'DownloadEvent',
      'WatchEvent',
      'ProjectCardEvent',
      'ProjectColumnEvent',
      'ProjectEvent') AS non_dev_related_event_types
SELECT
  toStartOfMonth(dt) AS month,
  count(*) AS events
FROM (
  SELECT event, dt
  FROM github_v2 FINAL
  WHERE
    owner = 'santiment' AND
    dt >= toDateTime('2021-01-01 00:00:00') AND
    dt < toDateTime('2021-12-31 23:59:59') AND
    event NOT IN non_dev_related_event_types -- these events are related more with comments/issues, not developing
)
GROUP BY month

Test in Queries

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┌──────month─┬─events─┐
│ 2021-01-01 │   1600 │
│ 2021-02-01 │   1815 │
│ 2021-03-01 │   1709 │
│ 2021-04-01 │   1541 │
│ 2021-05-01 │   1139 │
│ 2021-06-01 │   1211 │
│ 2021-07-01 │   1213 │
│ 2021-08-01 │   1058 │
│ 2021-09-01 │   1156 │
│ 2021-10-01 │    269 │
│ 2021-11-01 │   1079 │
│ 2021-12-01 │    760 │
└────────────┴────────┘

To count all the people that have contributed to the development activity of an organization in a given time period:

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WITH ('IssueCommentEvent',
      'IssuesEvent',
      'ForkEvent',
      'CommitCommentEvent',
      'FollowEvent',
      'ForkEvent',
      'DownloadEvent',
      'WatchEvent',
      'ProjectCardEvent',
      'ProjectColumnEvent',
      'ProjectEvent') AS non_dev_related_event_types
SELECT
  toStartOfMonth(dt) AS month,
  uniqExact(actor) AS contributors
FROM (
  SELECT actor, dt
  FROM github_v2 FINAL
  WHERE
    owner = 'santiment' AND
    dt >= toDateTime('2021-01-01 00:00:00') AND
    dt < toDateTime('2021-12-31 23:59:59') AND
    event NOT IN non_dev_related_event_types -- these events are related more with comments/issues, not developing
)
GROUP BY month

Test in Queries

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┌──────month─┬─contributors─┐
│ 2021-01-01 │           18 │
│ 2021-02-01 │           17 │
│ 2021-03-01 │           20 │
│ 2021-04-01 │           22 │
│ 2021-05-01 │           23 │
│ 2021-06-01 │           19 │
│ 2021-07-01 │           21 │
│ 2021-08-01 │           20 │
│ 2021-09-01 │           20 │
│ 2021-10-01 │           19 │
│ 2021-11-01 │           19 │
│ 2021-12-01 │           19 │
└────────────┴──────────────┘

Updated 13 days ago

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Getting started

Guides

Resources

Writing SQL Queries

Overview

Clickhouse Overview

The FINAL keyword

The PREWHERE clause

Using pre-computed metrics

Fetch data for asset bitcoin and metric daily_active_addresses

Using precomputed metrics to build new metrics

Using raw data

Example for top transfers

Example for address balance

Example for Development Activity

Talk to us in Discord